Introduction

The term ‘morality’ has been defined in an explanatory way under two broad classifications in this article: (a) general description, (b) biblical description. The main reason for this classification is to be able to compare biblical system of morality, which is the focus of the study with other systems of morality. Scott B. Rae observed, ‘most people use the term morality and ethics interchangeably. Technically, morality refers to the actual content of right and wrong. Morality is the end result of ethical deliberations, the substance of right and wrong’.1 While noting this difference, the terms would be discussed as an inseparable pair in this paper.

General Definition of Morality

According to the New Bible Dictionary, the words ‘ethics’ and ‘morals’ according to the Greek and Latin books mean ‘customs’.2 The idea is to discover the things that are usually done and conclude that these are the things one ought to do. Logically, it follows that these are the things that will seem right to the individual and also to society. Scott B. Rae goes a bit further in stating what morality is primarily concerned about. He said that morality is primarily concerned about questions of right and wrong, the ability of distinguishing between the two, and the justification of the distinction.3 There may be norms in society, with reference to what is right and wrong. However, society faces so many new and challenging issues, that people are forced into ethical deliberations. Samuel Enoch Stumpf, in his book, ‘Elements of Philosophy’, possesses the following questions: Why can’t we do just what we want to do? What difference does it make to anyone how we behave? Why does the question of ethics arise in the first place? Why should we think that one way of behaving is better than the other? That telling the truth is better than trying to get ourselves out of trouble by telling a falsehood? And who has the authority to tell us what to do? He concludes by saying that one should study ethics in order to find answers to the questions, what should I do? And why should I do it?4 From Stumpf’s statement it can be seen that the main issue that divides people in their moral views is that of the ultimate source of moral authority.

Norman L. Geisler in the first seven chapters of his book, ‘Ethics: Options and Issues’ shows this division among people as he discussed the basic approaches to ethics. He states that ethical systems could be broadly divided into two main categories: deontological (duty centered) and teleological (end-centered). Deontological systems are systems that are based on principles in which actions (or character or even intentions) are inherently right or wrong. Teleological systems, on the other hand are system that are based on end result produced by an action.5 Scott B. Rae, in his discussion on ethical systems included one more division – relativism, to that already stated by Geisler. According to him ‘relativism’ refers to an ethical system in which rights and wrongs are not absolutes and unchanging, but relative to one’s culture (cultural relativism) or one’s own personal preferences (moral subjectivism).6 However, this third category can still fit under Geisler’s two divisions. Further, Geisler stated that there are six major ethical viewpoints: (i) Antinomianism – says there are no moral norms; (ii) Situationism – affirms that there is one absolute law (the law of love); (iii) Generalism – claims that there are some general laws but no ones; (iv) unqualified absolute laws that never conflicts; (v) conflicting absolutism – contends that there are many absolute norms that sometimes conflicts and one is obligated to do lesser evil; and (vi) graded absolutism – holds that many absolute laws sometimes conflict, but one is responsible to obey the higher law. Geisler pointed out these six sub-categories are based on a view of ethical approach, which revolves around norms – deontological.7 In contrast the other approach does not stress norms but ends – teleological, and is described as non-normative or utilitarian approach.

Biblical Definition

1. General Observations

D. H. Field observed that, ‘biblical ethics are God centered, instead of following majority opinion, or conforming to customary behaviour, the scripture encourages us to start with God and his requirement – not with man and his habits – when we look for moral guidelines’.8 In order to understand the Bible’s definition of morality, one needs to examine the scripture, as Field observed, to see what God says and requires. He points out five things from the Bible about biblical morality points us to the person of God to discover that nature of goodness. God alone is good and it is his will that expresses what is good and acceptable and perfect; ii) the source of moral knowledge is revelation. According to the Bible, Knowledge of right and wrong are not so much an object of philosophical inquiry as an acceptance of divine revelation; iii) moral teaching is phrase as commend not statements. With the exception of the OT wisdom literature, moral judgements are laid down flatly, not argued out reasonably. The philosophers on the other hand had to reason their moral judgment in order to convince people that they are good; iv) The basic ethical demand in biblical ethics is to imitate God. God sums up goodness in his own person. Man’s supreme ideal according to the Bible is to imitate him; v) Religion and ethics is theocentric. The moral teachings of scripture loose its credibility once the religious undergirding is removed. Religion and ethics are related as foundation to building. Biblical ethics spring from biblical doctrine and the two are inseparable. 9

2. Morality in the Old Testament

From a amore general overview of biblical morality, it is but proper to understand the concept as presented in the two testaments. In the OT a close understanding of the covenant, the Law and the Prophets can give one a clearer understanding of morality. These three aspects will now be examined individually examined.

a) The Covenant

The covenant God made with Israel through Moses (Exod. 24) had direct and far-reaching significance. God’s grace as seen in his actions of love and concern in delivering Israel from Egypt, supplies the chief motive for obedience to his commandments. The Israelites as God’s partners were united to respond gracefully to God’s prior acts of underserved love. They were called to his will in gratitude for his grace, rather than submit in terror to threats of punishment. For this reason, for example, slaves were to be treated generously because God treated the Hebrew slaves with generosity in Egypt.

The covenant also encourages an intense awareness of corporate solidarity in Israel. Its effect was not only to unite the individual to God, but also to bind all covenant members into a single community. A man’s transgression therefore can affect the whole community (josh 7), and everyone is under obligation to help a needy person. The strong emphasis on OT ethics hinges on social ethics.

b) The Law

The covenant provided the context for God’s law giving. A distinctive feature of the OT law was its stress on the maintenance of right relationships between people and between people and God. It can be noted that the most serious sequence of the law breaking was not any material punishment, but the resulting breakdown in relationships. (Ho 1:2). The Ten Commandments, which should be seen as the heart of the law, are concerned with the most fundamental of relationships. They set out the basic sanctity governing belief, worship and life.

c) The Prophets

Social conditions in Israel changed dramatically since Moses’ time, and the Israelites failed to see how the law required obedience in their daily dealings in society, which also affected their relationship with God. The Prophets made it their business to interpret the law by digging down to its basic principle and applying these to the concrete moral problems of their day.

2. Morality in the New Testament

Norman L. Geisler made the following observations about New Testament
Ethics:

1) That Christian ethics is based on God’s will. It is, as she puts it, a form of

divine command position; an ethical duty, which is something we ought to

do. It is prescriptive;

2) that Christian ethics is absolute. The fact that God’s moral character does
not change (Mal 3:16) means those moral obligations that flow from his nature are absolute. Geisler points out that whatever is traceable to God’s unchanging moral character is a moral absolute e.g. holiness, justice, love, truthfulness and mercy. Other commands flow from God’s will, but they are not absolute. That is, they must be obeyed because God prescribed them, but he did not prescribe them for all people, times and places. Absolute moral duties, on the contrary are binding on all people at all times and in all places;

3) That Christian ethics is based on God’s revelation. What God commands

has been revealed both generally (Rom. 1:19-20;2:12-15) in nature, and

specifically (Rom. 2:2-18;3:2) in scripture. God’s general revelation

contains his command for all people. His special revelation declares his

will for believer;

4) That Christian ethics is prescriptive since moral rightness is prescribed by

a Moral God. Geisler pointed out that there is no moral law without a

moral Lawgiver, or a moral legislation without a moral legislator. Therefore

Christian ethics is prescriptive not descriptive. Christians do not have their

ethics in the standard of Christians but in the standard for Christians – The

Bible; and

5) Christian ethics is deontological. That is, based on principles in which

actions (or character or even intentions) are inherently right or wrong.10

CONCLUSION

Morality, as defined in this paper is the actual content of right and wrong. The major issue however is how to determine it. The main question that arises out of this issue is: Where lies the ultimate source of moral authority? One group of people believes that authority is immanent, human beings have the authority to create their own moral rules and systems – they fall under the category of teleological ethics. The other group believes that moral authority is transcendent, that is, authority exists outside of ordinary human experience. In biblical morality, that authority is God, who has revealed himself to human beings through his special and general revelation. That makes biblical ethics unique. It is deontological. In both the old and New Testament it is seen that morality is grounded in the nature and character of God.

As was pointed out, ethics and morality are inseparable. For Christians, ethics is not so much of determining the good but of choosing it. For non-Christians it is more of determining the good. Whether one is a Christian or not as human being, one will certainly engage in ethical deliberations.

END NOTES

1Scott Rae, Moral Choices: An Introduction to Ethics (Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1995), p. 15.

2D.H. Field, Ethics: New Bible Dictionary. (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1982),

p. 351 .

3Scott Rae, Moral Choices: An Introduction to Ethics (Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1995), p. 21.

4Enoch Stumpf, Elements of Philosophy (London: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1993), p. 21.

5Norman L. Geisler, Ethics: Options and Issues. Michigan: Baker Book House,

1989), p. 24.

6Scott Rae, Moral Choices: An Introduction to Ethics (Michigan: Zondervan

Publishing House, 1995), p. 16.

7Norman L. Geisler, Ethics: Options and Issues. Michigan: Baker Book House,

1989), p. 25.

8D.H. Field, Ethics: New Bible Dictionary. (Leicester: Inter-Varsity Press, 1982),

p. 351 .

9Ibid, p. 351.

10Norman L. Geisler, Ethics: Options and Issues. Michigan: Baker Book House,

1989), pp. 22 -24.
cloud law

Or is it the New Testament? Do Christians follow the NT or the OT?

thank you.
About the Author:

Jesus is clear, the old testament IS valid. If modern Christians thinks otherwise, only uses a few part of the old testament (like the Ten Commandments) and rejects the rest, they go against both the LORD, Jesus and me. You do not want this trinity against you!
About the Author:

a. The development of Old Testament study (pp.1-82)

The teachings of Scripture have been perverted even in the first century of the Christian era. Cassiodorus’ work entitled De Institutione Divinarum Scripturarum (d. A.D. 562) is seen as a valuable contribution to the beginnings of Biblical criticism as applied to the text of the Hebrew Bible. The tenth and eleventh centuries witnessed a number of critical attacks in Spain upon various parts of the Hebrew Scriptures, one of which was made by Ibn Hazam of Cordova about A.D. 994. The Reformation introduced biblical criticism even though individual Reformers sometimes adopted a standpoint towards certain books in the canon which was not in complete harmony with earlier ecclesiastical traditions. A more developed critical approach to the Old Testament appeared in the writings of several men who were not professional theologians in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. Source criticism is discussed in its relationship with eighteenth-century enlightenment. The Graf-Wellhausen hypothesis, reactions to the afore-mentioned hypothesis and Old Testament scholarship since World War I are also discussed.

The writer believes that it is only when criticism is properly established that Old Testament scholarship can expect to reflect something of the vitality, dignity and spiritual richness of the law, prophecy and the sacred writings.

b. Old Testament archaeology (pp.83-144)

In discussing the historical survey of scientific archaeology, the writer discusses the pre scientific archaeology taking into consideration pilgrimages, Napoleon in Egypt and surface explorations. He studies the spread and development of archaeological techniques and radiocarbon dating in the analysis of scientific archaeology since Flinders Petrie. One of the functions of archaeology is to awaken a sense of the vitality of the Hebrew past in the student of Old Testament life and times. His analysis of the archaeology of early Mesopotamia reveals that archaeological activity in the land of the Tigris and Euphrates has now demonstrated conclusively that culture originated in that general geographical area rather than Egypt. The archaeological study of the background of the Old Testament tremendously assists the researcher to understand patriarchal history, the exodus and the Israelite kingdom. Perhaps the most famous archaeological discovery of all times was the findings of the Dead Sea Scrolls. Much that was known in earlier days has been amply confirmed, thus furnishing a more secure basis for future advances in the field of Biblical scholarship.

c. Ancient Near Eastern chronology (pp.145-198)

The writer admits that despite the enormous amount of information available for the modern scholar as the result of historical and archaeological research, there is still an insufficiency of primary source materials to adequately trace the chronology from Adam to Abraham. Extra-biblical sources are naturally of very great importance when they furnish fixed dates, and it is often in the light of such material that schemes of Biblical dating have to be modified. However, it was proved impossible in the light of available statistics to assign precise dates to the Hebrew patriarchs, or to associate them with any detailed chronological scheme amenable to control by means of extra-biblical sources. In discussing the chronology of Israel’s early history, Harrison observes that the nature of the genealogical scheme associated with the patriarchs in Genesis 14 has raised important problems of Old Testament chronology. Although the problems with chronology cannot be solved completely, a recognition of the customs of the ancient scribes, taken together with the archaeological findings that require an interval of some two hundred and thirty years between Joshua and David, should go far towards resolving most of the difficulties arising from a strictly literal interpretation of the figures in Judges. The writer admits that the discussion on the Old Testament history (the monarchy and after) deals with much more exact numbers.

d. The Old Testament text and canon (pp.199-288)

This section is a discussion on the history of Hebrew writing, the Old Testament text, textual criticism and the Old Testament canon. The study of the Hebrew text in its own right is a matter of great importance, since the judgements that are made by scholars in this field are basic to all other areas of Old Testament investigation. As a discipline, textual criticism is independent of the history and growth of the Scriptural writings, as well as of the formation of the canon. The primary concerns of this study are the transmission of the text, the rise and development of revisions, the nature and scope of scribal activities during the process of transmission, the incidence of vocalization and the emergence of the Massocretic text. The ultimate aim of the textual critic is to recover the text of Scripture as nearly as possible in its original form. However, this laudable objective cannot always be realized, for none of the original drafts of the Old Testament compositions has survived, and the copies that exist have of course been subjected both to the frailty of human nature and the ravages of the centuries. There are undoubtedly numerous instances in which cogent arguments can be adduced for the adoption of one of several plausible variants.

e. The study of Old Testament history (pp.291-348)

The writer observes that while the sources available for determining the idea of history among the ancient Hebrews are of an accredited literary nature, they are quite unlike the cuneiform and hieroglyphic inscriptions of Babylonia and Egypt. At least one Moabite ruler has a royal inscription; the Hebrews possessed none. Despite this lack of official records, however, there were a great many other sources in existence upon which the writers of the Old Testament books were able to draw. The rise of the nineteenth-century critical school, with its emphasis upon literary analysis and its evolutionary view of Hebrew origins, brought with it an extremely skeptical evaluation of the Old Testament historical narratives. Whereas at the end of the nineteenth century one of the most pressing questions of debate among Old Testament historians was the nature of the progression from polydaemonism to monotheistic faith in the experience of ancient Israel, the situation had changed by the middle of the twentieth century to the point where scholars were concerned to grapple with the entire question of the origins of Israel. It is evident that there is a need for a reliable methodological approach that will bridge the gap between the Biblical events and the extant written form of the narratives describing them, if the writing is not contemporary with the event. A much more satisfactory approach to the problems of Hebrew historiography has been provided by W.F. Albright, a distinguished Biblical archaeologist. Though Albright himself and some of his followers appear to concur in a kind of documentary analysis of the Pentateuch that has affinities with that propounded by Wellhausen, they are quick to recognize the breakdown of the classical pattern of source-analysis as the primary means of reconstructing Hebrew history and religion, and are willing to avail themselves of other cognate areas of information.

f. Old Testament religion (349-414)

The writer observes that the study of Old Testament religion took a somewhat different turn as a result of Julius Wellhausen’s speculative ideas about the development of Hebrew history. Starting from the Positivish premise that religion was merely an offshoot or product of human cultural activity, he applied the evolutionary philosophical concepts of Hegelianism to the study of the faith of Israel. Following the lead of Kittel and Sellin, scholars began to look for traces of Canaanite religious influence during the settlement period and the monarchy upon the faith of Israel. An entirely new and unexpected source of information concerning the culture of ancient Canaan came to light with the discovery in 1929 of a great many cuneiform tablets at Ras Shamra, the Ugarit of the Armarna Age, on the coast of northern Syria. In the eleven campaigns at the site prior to World War II, many hundreds of tablets were unearthed whose contents placed the culture of ancient Canaan in an entirely new perspective. Harrison also discusses the influences of the methodological approach, animism, totemism, tabu and ancestor worship on the religion of the Hebrews. He systematically traces the religion of the Patriarchs, the religion of Moses, the tabernacle and Canaanite influences, the sacrificial system, the religion of the monarchy and the prophets and later Judaism in his discussion on the history of Old Testament religion.
mom blog

When someone is talking about New Testament trivia, they are talking about the second portion of the Christian Bible. The first part is the Old Testament, which is a version of the holy book of Judaism as well. The New Testament on the other hand, was written after, and about, the life of Jesus Christ. The book was originally written in Koine Greek, and as such is sometimes referred to as the Greek New Testament or the Greek Scriptures.

A New Testament quiz will indicate that it was written sometime around 45AD. The earliest written version of the texts is dated to somewhere in the early 100s. There are many debates by different branches of the church as to what books and writings are to be included in the New Testament, but most have agreed on twenty seven books.

New Testament trivia references all of the books in this portion of the bible, but four of the most frequently mentioned are the Gospels. These are the four different accounts of the life of Jesus, each credited to one of his apostles. The Gospels are the Gospel of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John.

Although authorship of the books has been difficult to conclude, scholars reckon that the book of Acts was written by the same author as Luke. A New Testament quiz might mention that the next section of the Bible includes several books which are called the Pauline Epistles because they are believed to have been written by Paul. There are other books classified as Epistles which are thought to have been written by the apostles Simon and John, among others.

One of the most hotly debated parts of the bible is the final book of the New Testament. It would be tough to discuss Bible trivia without mentioning the book of Revelation, because it is this book which speaks of the apocalypse, and of the end of days. Some feel that this book was written by the Apostle John as well, although this is one of the many debated points of bible scholarship.

There are other books as well which could be considered by some scholars to be “New Testament” and yet these are not widely recognized by the primary churches as being canonical texts. However, there are both religious groups and scholars that believe that there is still valuable information contained in those other writings, and they are still studied extensively.
About the Author:

On a Nairn Academy filing cabinet a magnet states, “The Ten Commandments are NOT a multiple choice”.

In every area of life man requires direction and laws – even when driving. They are for his welfare, well-being and safety. Can you imagine how our road system would be even more chaotic if there were no laws and rules?

Some protest that the Commandments are negative and ‘it is bad psychology to be too negative’. What absolute nonsense!

Even in sport, when the ball goes over the line, the game must stop – ‘no matter how well I thought I was playing’.

It is when we live within the limitations, which God has set, that we enjoy liberty.

For society to have a healthy morality it is important to define what is wrong as well as what is right. Both are essential.

Another objection is that God’s Commandments are ‘antiquated’ or old fashioned, being 3,000 years old.

Well, as the doctor said, “You came into this world in an old fashioned way and you will leave it in an old fashioned way!”

The Commandments help define sin. You can tell if a wall is crooked by hanging a plumbline, or placing a spirit-level against it. The straight edge of God’s Law reveals how crooked we are, and until a man realises he is crooked he will not want to be straightened.

It has been suggested that they are Old Testament and Jewish.

Jesus Christ was a Jew. The one who died for me on the cross, shedding His blood to wash away my sin, was the King of the Jews. It was He who was raised from the dead three days later and it is He who is coming back to this world to put right what has gone wrong.

Until a man knows he has a disease he will not seek the cure.

Sandy Shaw
About the Author:

The Bible Answers – Is God More Forgiving in the New Testament than in the Old Testament Part 1
About the Author:

Turkey, which approximately has 71,000,000 inhabitants, is located both in Asia and Europe. The country is bordered by Bulgaria and Greece in the northwest region, Iraq in the southeast, Iran and Armenia in the east, and Syria in the south. Its capital city is Ankara but the largest is Istanbul. You can enjoy the best sailing charter Turkey in the south and west of the country’s 80 provinces.

The country is very rich in culture and tradition. Its history is very colorful and dynamic, but full of rage, conflict, and wars. It was managed by many empires. During the ancient times, particularly in 1800 BC, most of the country was inhabited by the Hittites. In 8th century BC, the Greeks occupied the country. After two centuries (6th century BC), Turkey became part of the Persian Empire. However, the Persians did not last long. Soon after, it was invaded by Rome in 395 AD and was administered as a province. Still, the country was invaded by the Ottoman Turks in the 13th century AD.

Cruising a sailing yacht in Turkey means sailing along the many gulfs and bays of the much indented Turkish coast. It is also a journey back in time, with a plethora of archaeological sites, castles and temples that reflects its importance in ancient and medieval times.

The Turkish waters is usually separated into three different cruising areas:

-The Lycian Coast: a wild and rugged landscape with an grandiose display of mountains, cliffs and ravines.

-The Carian Coast: this is the most popular sailing area and includes the two largest yacht charter bases; Bodrum and Marmaris.

-The Ionian Coast: a coastline starting in Izmir in the north and streches all the way to Bodrum in the south. Here you will find the best climate in the whole of Turkey and a lot of culture.

The coast of Lycia is an ideal place for sailing. This place has many ports and harbors. The waters of Lycia can reach as far as Gocek. The portion of the so-called “East Lycian Coast” covers Antalya, Kas, and Fethiye. These places are ideal for cruising because of its several attractions such as its coves, beaches, cliffs, and mountains. However, these areas are sometimes regarded by many ancient sailors as a dangerous sailing ground because of its tempered waters. Nevertheless, all its harbors are safe and protected.

One of the country’s most renowned tourist activities is sailing along its calm, relaxing, and stunning sea waters. In particular, most tourist yachties go to the coasts of the Mediterranean and the Aegean. Aside from yachting, Turkey can also offer its historical and archaeological sites. You can find a handful of the country’s ancient architectures in Istanbul (the largest and the former capital city). You can visit the world-famous Hagia Sophia, Sultan Ahmed Mosque, Pera Palas, Grand Bazaar, Galata Tower, and the Dolmabahce Palace. If you are not into old buildings, you can have a stopover to Istanbul’s modern shopping malls, which are among the largest shopping centers in the world.
placecard holders